Review of Karl Marx’s Capital (1867)

Review of Karl Marx’s Capital (1867) Review of Karl Marx’s article Capital Capital, published in 1867 instantly made its mark as one of Karl Marx’s most ‘detailed critique of economic life.’ (Rivikin Ryan, 665, 2004) In his article, Marx not only highlights that we ‘fetishize the objects that appeal most immediately to our senses’, (Rivikin Ryan, 665, 2004) but he also argues that we ignore the real exploitation of the workers who provide these commodities on the marketplace. In his article, Marx illuminates how the capitalist economic system structures human society. One of the ideas that he puts forward is how the relationship between ‘satisfying human wants’ for the value of a commodity contrasts with the invisible exploitation of labour. He states that man easily ‘changes the forms’ of the commodities in order to be ‘useful to him’, therefore demonstrating how the bourgeoisie owns the means of production thus highlighting how they are only interested in producing the maximum surplus value to suit their needs. Furthermore, Marx describes the capitalist as an ‘enigmatical character’ which further suggests they have the power and control over the world’s natural, economic and human resources to take advantage of the product of labour, as soon as it takes the ‘form of commodities’ which is of high value. Another idea put forward by Marx is the contrast between the social relations and the technical relations of production. Firstly, Marx states ‘their own labour is presented to them as a social relation’ which is of importance as it means it is the people who are associated to a relatively stable economic structure. However, Marx goes on to say the producer’s labour only exists ‘between the product of their labour’ which implies it is now the people that relate to objects; thus highlighting how the result of production determines your social class. In addition, he states that the qualities of the products of labour are ‘perceptible and imperceptible’ which links back to the idea of how we are not only ignorant to the producers of commodities but this opens up to the alienation of social relations. Following on from this idea, the social relations become less apparent as Marx argues that the value relation between the products of labour has ‘no connection with their physical properties’. Marx’s idea of commodity fetishism is highlighted here as it transforms how the production of commodities and money are exchanged in the market trade through secretly hiding the fact that someone was exploited to produce that value of commodity. Furthermore, Marx continues to illuminate the human alienation of the capitalist structure as he states man is drawn into this concept by ‘the fantastic form of a relation between things’. Marx believes that through reification, these commodities now seen as objects obscure the economic exploitation of the labourer’s (subjects) wages and the new value of product created by the worker themselves. In his article, Marx cleverly underpins how we are ignorant to the inefficient and exploitive system with the analogy of the ‘act of seeing’. He argues that from the ‘external object to the eye’, we see an ‘actual passage of light from one thing to another’, which implies the exploitation of labourer’s is not invisible; but we just choose not to see it as we live in a controlled society. In his article Marx demonstrates a contrast between the social and technical relation production and from this light analogy we can argue that there is a need for social dependency that capitalism feeds off; in order for economic power to overrule all political and social activities. Furthermore, the value of capital would deteriorate if labour is removed from the workplace, thus highlighting how the bourgeoisie are in effect dependent upon the proletariat labour-power. In his text, Marx also puts forward a philosophical concept which brings about the theory of alienation of the capitalist system. The analogy of the ‘mist-enveloped regions of the religious world’ is a highly effective idea as it illuminates that Christianity and the concept of God estranges the natural characteristics of our human desires. Marx essentially made use of Charles de Brosses concept of fetishism through his The Cult of Fetish Gods (1760) which suggests a materialist theory of the origin of religion which developed the idea of commodity fetishism. Marx gives reference to ‘men’s hands’ which arguably suggests that the whole system is corrupt as commodities are seen as more valuable than the labourer who produced it. Marx concludes with ‘This I call Fetishism’ which emphasises and summarises how unfair and corrupt the capitalist system works. Word count: 748 Marxism applied to Raymond Carver’s poem Shiftless There are many subtle concepts of Marxism found in Raymond Carver’s poem Shiftless, published in 1985. The first few lines highlight the idea that everything is masked in the capitalist system of control. He states the people who were higher up the social ladder ‘were comfortable’ (1) who were fortunate to live in ‘painted houses with flush toilets’ (2) and ‘drove cars whose year and make were recognizable’ (3). From the description given, the materialist goods illuminate the idea of conspicuous consumption; they purchase these costly good and publicly display them to impress people with their wealth of economic power. Furthermore, this idea of ‘painted houses’ could be symbolic for the fact that commodity fetishism is active as it shows these material commodities are of greater value than those who produced it. Also, ‘painted’ links in with Marx’s idea of how we are ignorant to acknowledge the exploitation of labourer’s. These material goods also link in with Marx’s idea of ‘satisfying human wants’ from his chapter on Capital. The consumer aspires to have the best of the best commodities in order to gain social, economic and cultural prestige. Marx argues in his chapter on The German Ideology that ‘those who lack the means of production are subject to it.’ (Rivkin Ryan, 2004, 656) This means depending on where you stand on the ladder of the capitalist system, you are put in a social class depending on the amount of means of production. Carver continues with ‘The ones worse off were sorry’ which links in with Mar x’s theory of how the working class are exploited and it further attacks the unfair capitalist market system. Carver gives reference to ‘strange cars’ and ‘dusty yards’ (5) to juxtapose the material goods in the first three lines. The poet cleverly shows the distinction between the value of commodities and the social classes in just one line. This links in with Marx’s alienation theory of the effect of the capitalist production on labourers. These material objects are there in the poem so that the reader can identify the clear contrast in social class; however those who are subject to it are under the false consciousness as it is the way a capitalist society works. According to Bertell Ollman, he argues that all classes are under some form of alienation, but it is ‘the proletariats affliction is the most severe.’ (Ollman, 2014) Following this idea, we can see the contrast of material commodities given in Shiftless, which highlights the exploitation of labour. The reference to ‘dusty yards’ suggests the capitalist system dominates the history of class struggle and the poem reflects the poverty that the proletariat undergo. In his poem, Carver cleverly represents his own opinion of life to mock the capitalist system of control as he stats ‘My goal was always / to be shiftless. I saw the merit in that.’(8 9) The poet Jim McGarrah states that ‘This constant state of flux and the battle for economic stability began to take a toll on Carver’s personal life’ (McGarrah, 2009) which highlights the domineering effect of the capitalist control. The idea of ‘doing nothing’ (11) links in with Marx’s view of ideology and how ideology is part of everyday reality. Terry Eagleton, a literary theorist, argues that ‘people invest in their own unhappiness’ (Eagleton, 1991, 13) which suggests why Carver experiences simple activities in the poem. The word ‘Spitting.’ (15) is positioned on its own to perhaps emphasise how this shiftless behaviour is seen to be more appealing than being a subject to an exploitive system where commodities are of m ore value. Marx uses a philosophical analogy of how the natural characteristics of human behaviour is estranged due to them being subjective to an ideological apparatus of a higher system; God in the religious world. Carver challenges this interpellation procedure by stating in the final two lines ‘â€Å"Don’t I know you?† / Not, â€Å"What are you going to be when you grow up?†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Carver highlights how controlled society is as everyone believes they have to be ‘something’ or ‘someone’ in order to attain social prestige. The pressure of a good reputation and a social status is what forces us into the idea of having to have the best commodities that we either buy or own in order to communicate a sense of social prestige. This poem highlights Marxist theoretical concepts in order to highlight how exploitive, alienating and inefficient the capitalist system is. Word count: 740

Corinthians :: essays research papers

Corinthians, the seventh book of the New Testament, was written by Paul to get across that Jesus is alive (15:3-18) and that we will be resurrected (15:35-38), among other things. Today there is no dispute that Paul is the author of I Corinthians. â€Å"Both external and the internal evidence for the Pauline authorship are so strong that those who attempt to show the apostle was not the writer succeed chiefly in proving their own incompetence as critics.†1 As internal evidence, Paul identifies himself as the author in 1 Corinthians 1:1 and 16:21. External evidence of Paul writing this letter is supported by people such as Clement of Rome (c. 95-97) and Augustine (c. 400). The letter was written to the people of Corinth. Corinth was a strategically located Roman city on the main land route between East and West and was the crossroads for several sea routes. Corinth was famous for its intellectual and material prosperity and was honored with being the capitol of Ancaia. It also became famous for its corruption. Paul began his ministry there on his second missionary journey. He converted many influential people in Corinth, thus he stayed for a year and a half. Most likely, Paul left Corinth in the fall of AD 51. Paul returned to Corinth on his third trip to Asia, c. fall, AD 52. Paul then wrote this letter from Ephesus while on his third trip to Asia. Paul wrote the letter several years after his initial departure from Corinth in the fall of AD 51-52. The letter was written before the beginning of the summer since Paul intended to leave Ephesus after Pentecost. It was also written before winter since Paul wanted to come to them and spend the winter. Paul wrote the letter four or five years after his initial departure from Corinth. Paul had many points that he wanted to get across in I Corinthians. For instance, the purpose of the letter was to address problems in the local churches of Corinth. Also, to counter worldly wisdom with Spiritual wisdom, and to answer questions that Corinthians had brought to Paul. (7:1,25 8:1) Furthermore, he wanted to deal with the several moral problems and the divisions that had formed as people had divided into fan-clubs and were proclaiming themselves followers of Paul, Apollo, Peter or Christ. During this time the Corinthian church had many problems. Most of these problems were the result of pride and placing so much emphasis on social status. In Corinth there was a lack of church discipline and an abuse of the Christian liberty. Paul dealt with these problems one by one, but the pinnacle of Paul’s argument is in chapter 13

Freshman English Paper Oliver Sacks

English Wednesday April 4, 2012 â€Å"Perspective Matters† As children, we learn that there are five human senses: sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch. Upon reflection and memory, I realize that sight is always listed first in the list of senses. It may just be a reflex or a habit to do so, or maybe it’s just human nature to place high emphasis on sight. Sight is taken for granted by most of us, and when we encounter non-sighted individuals, we have an emotional and physical reaction that we’re relieved the non-sighted cannot see.Reading Oliver Sacks’ case â€Å"To See and Not See†, about a man named Virgil, gives me a new and interesting perspective on blindness. I have a friend who is partially deaf. She and I communicate with visual cues and our communication is helped by the fact that she can hear some sound and can read lips. In contrast, I cannot say I have had an occasion to spend time with a non-sighted person. While reading about Virgil, however, I felt that I was given an opportunity to learn about the life of someone who lives in a world of only four senses.Virgil was born with sight, he briefly lost it at the age of 3 while ill, and at age 6 developed cataracts which blocked his vision and made him functionally blind. The life he lived was a modest one. He â€Å"had a steady job and an identity, was self-supporting, had friends, read Braille papers and books†¦ Life was limited but stable in its way. † (112) He accepted his blindness as simply part of his existence; Virgil’s life was imbued with passivity. At the age of 47, Virgil became re-acquainted with an old girlfriend named Amy. Their relationship evolved into a committed one within 3 years.With Amy’s insistent encouragement, Virgil assented to have surgery to remove one of the cataracts, despite his family’s misgivings over the disruption to his already stable life and identity as someone who is blind. There is a distillatio n of Virgil’s state of being; as I see it, his life is not his own, other people are making choices for him, and he is not asserting himself. Amy and his mother have strong opinions about if he should live with sight or without sight. Virgil himself sits, waiting for them to make a decision about his destiny.And so began Virgil’s passive journey into seeing – again. Virgil’s situation is not unlike Greg’s from Sacks’ case â€Å"The Last Hippie. † While Virgil was about to regain his vision, Greg, by contrast, was losing his; the result of a stealthy tumor slowly stealing his sight. But Greg, like Virgil, initially had concerns when confronted by his differently sighted future. For Greg, he accepted the explanation of his swami about the loss of his vision being due to â€Å"a deeper spirituality, an inner light. † He was â€Å"an illuminate,† a great honor. 43) This explanation pacified him about his vision, as it also b rought him to a deeper spirituality. Despite their concerns, both Greg and Virgil came to accept their destiny being written by other people in their lives. Amy brought Virgil to her ophthalmologist who reviewed his case and ascertained that the old diagnosis of retinitis pigmentosa may not have been accurate and he agreed to operate. Before the surgery, Virgil â€Å"could still see light and dark, the direction from which light came, and the shadow of a hand in front of his eyes†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (108) Dr.Hamlin did the cataract removal on his right eye, inserted a new lens implant and after the bandage came off, Virgil could see but only after hearing the surgeon speak to him to attract his attention. The first thing that Virgil saw was not concrete or a firm image, but light, motions and colors. This was only a brief indication of the tangled web of sight that was ahead. Sacks states: â€Å"Everyone, Virgil included, expected something much simpler. A man opens his eyes, light ente rs and falls on the retina: he sees. though there had been a careful surgical discussion of the operation and possible postsurgical complications, there was little discussion or preparation for the neurological and psychological difficulties that Virgil might encounter. † (115) While reading about Virgil, I have to come reflect more upon myself and the sense of sight. Very recently, I was diagnosed with early-onset glaucoma. I received this news from my doctor with heightened emotion and anxiety about what I would do if I lost my vision. I am lucky that my doctor immediately did a procedure to stop the progression of the glaucoma and keep my vision at its current state.I try to put myself in Virgil’s place and have become more empathetic to him and his particular circumstance. I think of my friend who is partially deaf; she says she wouldn’t change it for anything; it is who she is. Is Virgil conflicted about his identity now that he can see? When Dr. Sacks meets Virgil, Sacks is struck by the way he acted; that Virgil was exhibiting behavior of someone who looks but does not grasp the full picture. He is â€Å"mentally blind† or the definition of agnosic – the partial or total inability to recognize objects or persons by use of the appropriate sense – in Virgil’s case, the sense of sight.For example, he sees in pieces: notices facial features, not a composed face. Virgil still continues to use the actions of a blind person for everyday living, having Amy, now his wife, to establish lines for him to walk from room to room in their house. He even says he finds walking â€Å"scary† and â€Å"confusing† without touch, without his cane. (120) Virgil is dealing with being disrupted by massive changes: having surgery and getting married. The confusion he feels about walking without his cane is understandable.The cane was his support for a basic of life; another aspect that is taken for granted, putting on e foot in front of another. Virgil’s independence is being encroached upon and there is an erosion of confidence in his abilities that were part of his identity as a sightless person. Additional aspects of his new life were just as jumbled, as disconnected. Virgil couldn’t identify his cat and dog without touching them while visually investigating them. He’s confused by distances, light, sizes, angles and perspectives. Sacks says that â€Å"Virgil was blinded for a minute, until he put on a pair of dark-green sunglasses.Even ordinary daylight, he said, was too bright for him, too glary, he felt that he saw best in quite subdued light. † (131) During the initial testing Sacks’ conducted with Virgil, they went to a zoo for an outing. Virgil was only able to make out an animal by either the way it moved or by specific visual features, such as height. His heightened sense of hearing was noticed when he heard the lions roaring in the distance. He had a request to touch an animal, and was able to examine a statue of an ape. When he touched the statue, â€Å"he had an air of assurance that he had never shown when examining anything by sight†¦. emanding that he renounce all that came easily to him, that he sense the world in a way incredibly difficult for him and alien. † (132-33) Virgil’s non-sighted and sighted worlds joined briefly in the moment when it became apparent he could visually identify more features of the ape only after touching the statue. In Virgil’s journey to see again, he appears to be finding his way by adapting his skills from his past life to his current existence. There must have been a necessity to do so, so as to bridge the gap and to glue together who he was with who he is, and who he is going to be.Otherwise, I could see the confusion, disruption and erosion of independence would become overwhelming to Virgil and could therefore stymie any potential for improvement after the upcomi ng second surgery. Virgil was experiencing periods of severe visual fatigue and spontaneous distorted vision. The fatigue was understandable; his visual system was weak and unstable, not yet practiced and strong. The periods of distorted vision that lasted for hours or days were not as easy to understand, and therefore more of a worry.The continuation of the distorted vision became apparent with displays of what Sacks calls psychic blindness: â€Å"speaking of seeing while in fact appearing blind and showing no visual behavior whatever. † (136) He exhibited another type of withdrawal of sight, emotional, as well. When his family came to town for his wedding, Virgil began to need Amy to lead him around due to blurred vision. His family did oppose the surgery and despite the verity even then they did not believe he could see. Virgil’s emotional withdrawal of sight only ended after his family left post-wedding.Virgil was treated by his family as his former self instead of as his current self; his past passivity returned and he gave them what they wanted: Virgil as a blind man. His current visual identity must have felt threatened. Due to Virgil’s unpracticed and weak visual state, â€Å"that either neural overload or identity conflict might just push him over it. † (138) After the surgery on Virgil’s left eye revealed that his acuity was the same as the right eye, there was some improvement but not as much as had been hoped for. He was able to focus somewhat better and was able to go back to work after the 2 months since the first surgery.Massage therapy was different for him now that he could see his clients. In order to do his job comfortably, he had to close his eyes and function as a non-sighted person. This experience for Virgil made him revert to functioning as blind rather than sighted, continuing his identity confusion. His continuing experiences for the next few months were memorable: experiencing the holidays with sigh t, seeing his family and home in Kentucky, seeing the ballet with Amy. He interacted with his family while exhibiting visual behaviors, a big step towards change for Virgil. The change was arrested by his becoming critically ill with pneumonia.The result of the illness was lack of oxygen to brain, and Virgil’s vision was receding. He acted as though he could see even when he couldn’t; by reaching for things but saying he could not see. Sacks indicates â€Å"This condition – called implicit sight – occurs if the visual parts of the cerebral cortex are knocked out, but the visual centers in the subcortex remain intact. † (146) At this point for Virgil, he is now experiencing even more change; after his health improves and he leaves the hospital, he is attached to an oxygen tank which leaves him unable to work, and therefore having to move from his home.Of course, these changes have an effect on Virgil’s visual and emotional states, as they wou ld on anyone. Virgil is now blind – again. Even though Virgil has rare moments of minimal sight, he has returned to functioning as a non-sighted person. After the all too-human reaction of rage, Virgil himself has expressed an acceptance of his visual situation. Sacks notes, â€Å"Virgil for his part, maintains philosophically, ‘These things happen. ’† (151) As Virgil says, things do happen. My friend lost her hearing as a toddler; I will be losing my vision and prepare myself for this inevitable future.All of us deal with these stages of life and envelop them into ourselves, our identities. There are different definitions of perspective: point of view; representation of objects as they might appear to the eye; a mental view or prospect. To apply them all to Virgil is to see him as he should be seen, without a need to change him and to accept him with and without sight. Works Cited Sacks, Oliver. An Anthropologist on Mars: Seven Paradoxical Tales. New York : Vintage, 1996. Print. —. â€Å"The Last Hippie. † An Anthropologist on Mars: Seven Paradoxical Tales. New York: Vintage, 1996. 42 – 76. Print.

The History of Sao Paulo

Sà £o Paulo, Brazil is the largest city in Latin America, edging out runner-up Mexico City by a couple of million inhabitants. It has a long and interesting history, including serving as home base for the infamous Bandeirantes. Foundation The first European settler in the area was Joà £o Ramalho, a Portuguese sailor who had been shipwrecked. He was the first to explore the area of present-day Sà £o Paulo. Like many cities in Brazil, Sà £o Paulo was founded by Jesuit Missionaries. Sà £o Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga was established in 1554 as a mission to convert Guainà ¡s natives to Catholicism. In 1556-1557 the Jesuits built the first school in the region. The town was strategically located, being between the ocean and fertile lands to the west, and it is also on the Tietà ª River. It became an official city in 1711. Bandeirantes In the early years of Sà £o Paulo, it became the home base for the Bandeirantes, which were explorers, slavers, and prospectors who explored the interior of Brazil. In this remote corner of the Portuguese Empire, there was no law, so ruthless men would explore the uncharted swamps, mountains and rivers of Brazil taking whatever they wanted, be it native slaves, precious metals or stones. Some of the more ruthless Bandeirantes, such as Antonio Rapà ´so Tavares (1598-1658), would even sack and burn Jesuit missions and enslave the natives who lived there. The Bandeirantes explored a great deal of the Brazilian interior, but at a high cost: thousands, if not millions of natives, were killed and enslaved in their raids.​​ Gold and Sugar Gold was discovered in the state of Minas Gerais at the end of the seventeenth century, and subsequent explorations discovered precious stones there as well. The gold boom was felt in Sà £o Paulo, which was a gateway to Minas Gerais. Some of the profits were invested in sugarcane plantations, which were quite profitable for a time. Coffee and Immigration Coffee was introduced to Brazil in 1727 and has been a crucial part of the Brazilian economy ever since. Sà £o Paulo was one of the first cities to benefit from the coffee boom, becoming a center for coffee commerce in the nineteenth century. The coffee boom attracted Sà £o Paulo’s first major wave of foreign immigrants after 1860, mostly poor Europeans (particularly Italians, Germans, and Greeks) seeking work, although they were soon followed by a number of Japanese, Arabs, Chinese, and Koreans. When slavery was outlawed in 1888, the need for workers only grew. Sà £o Paulo’s considerable Jewish community also was established around this time. By the time the coffee boom fizzled in the early 1900s, the city had already branched out into other industries. Independence Sà £o Paulo was important in the Brazilian independence movement. The Portuguese Royal Family had moved to Brazil in 1807, fleeing Napoleon’s armies, establishing a royal court from which they ruled Portugal (at least theoretically: in reality, Portugal was ruled by Napoleon) as well as Brazil and other Portuguese holdings. The Royal family moved back to Portugal in 1821 after the defeat of Napoleon, leaving eldest son Pedro in charge of Brazil. The Brazilians were soon angered by their return to colony status, and Pedro agreed with them. On September 7, 1822, in Sà £o Paulo, he declared Brazil independent and himself Emperor. Turn of the Century Between the coffee boom and wealth coming from mines in the interior of the country, Sà £o Paulo soon became the richest city and province in the nation. Railroads were built, connecting it to the other important cities. By the turn of the century, important industries were making their base in Sà £o Paulo, and the immigrants kept pouring in. By then, Sà £o Paulo was attracting immigrants not only from Europe and Asia but from within Brazil as well: poor, uneducated workers from the Brazilian northeast flooded into Sà £o Paulo looking for work. The 1950s Sà £o Paulo benefited greatly from the industrialization initiatives developed during the administration of Juscelino Kubitschek (1956-1961). During his time, the automotive industry grew, and it was centered in Sà £o Paulo. One of the workers in the factories in the 1960s and 1970s was none other than Luiz Inà ¡cio Lula da Silva, who would go on to become president. Sà £o Paulo continued to grow, both in terms of population and influence. Sà £o Paulo also became the most important city for business and commerce in Brazil. Sà £o Paulo Today Sà £o Paulo has matured into a culturally diverse city, powerful economically and politically. It continues to be the most important city in Brazil for business and industry and lately has been discovering itself culturally and artistically as well. It has always been on the cutting edge of art and literature and continues to be home to many artists and writers. It is an important city for music as well, as many popular musicians are from there. The people of Sà £o Paulo are proud of their multicultural roots: the immigrants who populated the city and worked in its factories are gone, but their descendants have kept their traditions and Sà £o Paulo is a very diverse city.